Glossar-English:Equality, Similarity, and Identity
Sub-Item of: Effects of imagery
Original: Gleichheit, Ähnlichkeit und Identität
The ambiguity of the expression ‘similarity’Frequently characterized as ‘the same in the different’, similarity is considered a particularly relevant concept in many image-theoretical approaches if not even a central basic concept (⊳ Similarity and Signs Close to Perception and Symbols, Index, Icon);[1] for a corresponding theory, a being can only be said to use something as an image if it is able to recognize the similarity between objects. On closer inspection, this formulation reveals a rather complex ability, the scope of which only becomes clear in a concept-genetic reconstruction. For even lower organisms obviously react to similarity, for example when they are exposed to artificial stimuli in ethological experiments or to cases of mimicry in the wild.[2] But it remains questionable whether those beings actually recognize an occurrence of »similarity«, well, whether they are even able to recognize similarity in the sense actually intended, since ‘similarity’ ultimately is used simply in the sense of ‹equality for those beings›, while the deviations from equality are only conscious to the human observer. Depending on the context, these are indeed different, albeit related, concepts that can be meant by the same expression ‘similarity’. In particular, the image-theoretical »similarity« concept should be contrasted with the concept of »equality« or »similarity« of objects, on the one hand, and that of »identity«, on the other. This short introduction already makes it clear that the discussion about equality, similarity, and identity does only make sense between the two poles of the assessed objects and their characteristics recognizable to a being, on the one hand, and the judging beings and their competencies to recognize objects, on the other. For only those who are able, for example, to distinguish between the momentary appearance of an object and the object independently of its respective appearance can understand an object as similar to another kind of object, i.e., as ‹equal in its actual appearance to those other objects›.
Concept-genetic consideration of »similarity«The interlocking of object properties and viewer competencies can best be grasped in an action-theoretical determination of the concept of similarity: The reactions and reaction dispositions that a being shows when an object is present in its environment, then, form the basis of the concept-genetic analysis. Starting point: »similarity« as »sameness«The ability to perceive something is probably the indisputable basis from which concept-genetic considerations of the concept of »similarity« can proceed.[3] However, we only recognize that there is a certain perception in another being by its associated reactions.
Thus, the anecdote told by Pliny the Younger about the ancient painter Zeuxis suggests at first glance that birds detect similarity: According to Pliny, Zeuxis had made his depiction of grapes so similar that some birds flew over to peck at the apparent fruit (cf. [Pliny 2004a]). The fact that objects are equal in some respects and different in others is only determined relative to the correspondingly equal or different reactions of the being observed (cf. [Gallistel 1980a]Gallistel, Randy (1980): The Organization of Action: A New Synthesis. Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., Hillsdale, NJ. A simple concept of perception arises for beings for whom the environment is already divided into objects but without being able to deal with these objects as individuated objects.[4] On this conceptual level, various near and far stimuli, on the one hand, and different areas of behavior, on the other, are associated with one another, so that one can speak of an object confronting the organism as part of its environment, as well as of its perception: water seen from near and far, heard, felt, etc.; Water for drinking, for bathing, for swimming, etc. Nevertheless, it is also true here that appearance and being coincide in each case. To perceive here always means to group together things alike. Referring to the above example of Zeuxis’ birds, which can essentially be understood at the level of complexity mentioned, it is crucial for the action-theoretical definition of the concept of similarity that the behavior of the birds is regarded as behavior that is not adequate for the current behavioral situation (cf. Fig 1[5]). However, as we observers understand, the behavior would fit in quite well with a completely different context – a behavioral situation in which there would actually be food instead of the image carrier. The behavior of the birds shows us, in other words, that they are deceived by false appearances. It is clear to the observer that they are wrong. The birds, on the other hand, do not see through their behavior as the result of deception. Although they will turn away after a while “disappointed”. But what remains for them at the point where they had just perceived grapes (B-perception in Fig. 1) is not something reminiscent of grapes, but only something that has nothing to do with grapes at all (A-perception). Whenever such beings recognize, they react to similarity, but not to identity since at this level the concept of the connection of modes of appearance of one and the same object that goes beyond one behavioral situation cannot yet be formed. For this very reason, unlike the human observer, they are not in a position to relate the (deceptive) appearance of an actually present object to the appearance of a completely different, absent object. Resemblance cannot yet be recognized by beings falling under this concept. Aim: »Similarity« as a counter concept to »identity«Anders als Vögel verfügen Menschen hingegen mit den Begriffen für individuierte Gegenstände prinzipiell über die Möglichkeit, in einer trompe l’œil-Situation nicht einfach nur entweder fehlerhaft auf die Täuschung hereinzufallen oder gar keinen Zusammenhang zwischen Bildträger und Abgebildetem herzustellen. Vielmehr gelingt es ihnen, sich zugleich anwesende Darstellung (A-Wahrnehmung in Abb. 1, auf die aktuelle Verhaltenssituation bezogen) und abwesendes Dargestelltes (B-Wahrnehmung, auf einen anderen Kontext bezogen) zu vergegenwärtigen und beides als zwei verschiedene, aber aufeinander verweisende Entitäten zu begreifen. Genau das ist es, was wir als »Erkennen von Ähnlichkeit« begreifen.[6] Damit also Wesen etwas als etwas anderem ähnlich erkennen können, muss zweierlei vorliegen:
Da es umgangssprachlich zu nahe liegt und daher kaum zu vermeiden ist, dass auch bei den Vögeln des Zeuxis und ähnlichen Fällen von ‘Ähnlichkeit’ gesprochen wird, ist es sinnvoll, die beiden Fälle zumindest durch Indizes voneinander zu unterscheiden. In [Schirra 2005a]Schirra, Jörg R.J. (2005): Foundation of Computational Visualistics. DUV, Wiesbaden.
Ähnlichkeit und KontextbildungDie Grundlage der erweiterten Wahrnehmungskompetenz, die »Ähnlichkeitβ« erlaubt, ist gleichermassen die Basis der Fähigkeit, mit individuellen, die Zeit überdauernden Gegenständen umgehen zu können (Objektkonstitution), nämlich die Fähigkeit verschiedene Situationen miteinander in Beziehung zu setzen (Kontextbildung). Damit verklammert Ähnlichkeit Bilder auf doppelte Weise mit dem Zugang zu abwesenden Kontexten: Ähnlichkeit beruht auf der intentionalen Hinwendung zu einer abwesenden Situation, die damit für Bilder als wahrnehmungsnahen Zeichen konstitutiv ist. Andererseits wird mit dem Bild auf eben diese in der Regel abwesende Situation hingewiesen, so dass die kommunikative Grundfunktion des Bildes im Etablieren eines gemeinsamen Zugangs zu diesem Kontext besteht. Bildanthropologisch spielt dieser Doppelbezug bei der »initialen Kontextbildung« – der begriffsgenetischen Betrachtung zur Fähigkeit, mit abwesenden Kontexten umzugehen, eine wichtige Rolle (⊳ logische Kontextbildung und mentale Bilder). |
Notes
Literature
[Gallistel 1980a]Gallistel, Randy (1980): The Organization of Action: A New Synthesis. Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., Hillsdale, NJ.[Goodman 1968a]Goodman, Nelson (1968): Languages of Art. Hackett, Indianapolis.[Schirra & Sachs-Hombach 2006b]Schirra Jörg R.J. & Sachs-Hombach, Klaus (2006): Fähigkeiten zum Bild- und Sprachgebrauch . Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie, 54, 6.[Schirra 2000a]Schirra, Jörg R.J. (2000): Täuschung, Ähnlichkeit und Immersion: Die Vögel des Zeuxis. In: Rehkämper, K.& Sachs-Hombach, K. (Hg.), Vom Realismus der Bilder: Interdisziplinäre Forschungen zur Semantik bildhafter Darstellungsformen. Skriptum, Magdeburg.[Schirra 2005a]Schirra, Jörg R.J. (2005): Foundation of Computational Visualistics. DUV, Wiesbaden.[Scholz 2004a]Scholz, Oliver R. (2004): Bild, Darstellung, Zeichen. Philosophische Theorien bildhafter Darstellungen. Klostermann, Frankfurt/M.[Wollheim 1982a]Wollheim, Richard (1982): Sehen-als, sehen-in und bildliche Darstellung. In: Wollheim, R. (Hg.), Objekte der Kunst. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt/M. Version 1: 2013 Responsible: Editing: Contributions by: Joerg R.J. Schirra und Marcel Lemmes — (Note) Quote as: [Schirra & Sachs-Hombach 2013g-a]Schirra, Jörg R.J. & Sachs-Hombach, Klaus (2013). Gleichheit, Ähnlichkeit und Identität. (Ausg. 1). In: Schirra, J.R.J.; Halawa, M. & Liebsch, D. (Hg.), Glossar der Bildphilosophie. (2012-2026). [bildglossar.org/index.php?title=Gleichheit,_Ähnlichkeit_und_Identität]. |
