Glossar-English:Predication: Unterschied zwischen den Versionen
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== | ==Predication as an unsaturated partial action of propositions== | ||
Along with [[Nomination|nomination]], predication forms the second central partial sign act of the [[Interaktions-, Selbst- und Sachbezug|propositional angle]] of [[Proposition|statements]]. Predication is the partial action of communicating or suggesting that a common habit of distinguishing is now relevant and applicable to the objects that are picked out by the nominations of the [[Proposition|propositions]] from the discourse universe common to the communication partners involved. Reference is thus made to a kind of abstract standard for the dimension of distinction under consideration, traditionally called ‘a concept’. This is – contrasting to nominations – also meant to communicate something that was not yet known to the interlocutor (cf. <bib id='Kamlah & Lorenzen 1973a'>Kamlah & Loren­zen 1973a</bib>: § 2, and <bib id='Gerhardus et al. 1975a'>Gerhar­dus et al. 1975a</bib>: p. 25). | |||
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Since the [[Nomination|nominatoric]] use of images remains very problematic, while at the same time, an equation with [[Proposition|propositions]] is considered unconvincing due to the lack of functional internal division, many image scientists assume that picture usages are to be interpreted fundamentally as predications (cf. <bib id='Goodman 1968a'></bib> or <bib id='Sachs-Hombach 2003a'></bib>). | |||
== | ==Types and requirements of predication== | ||
Predications can bring into play simple habitual distinctions, ie only one term at a time, or complex habitual distinctions made up of several terms: ‹... is red› vs. ‹... is red and green striped with yellow dots framed in violet ›. In addition, the single-place predictive predictions present in these examples are distinguished from the multi-place relational ones Predications, such as: ‹... negotiates with... about...›. Since two cases are differentiated with a practice of differentiation, predictions always occur in pairs: for example ‹... is red› and ‹... is not red› (or ‹... is not red›).The relationship between the two aspects of the distinction under consideration is called internal negation.[1] | |||
Predications can bring into play ''simple'' distinctive habits, i.e., only a single concept at a time, or ''complex'' distinctive habits composed of multiple concepts: ‹... is red› vs. ‹... is red and green striped with yellow dots framed in purple›. Moreover, the single-argument ''predicative'' predications present in these examples are distinguished from multi-argument 'relational'' predications, such as '‹... negotiates with ... about ...›. Since two cases are differentiated with a distinctive practice, predications always occur in pairs: for example, ‹... is red› and ‹... is not red› (or ‹... is unred›). The relation between the two aspects of the distinction under consideration is called ''internal negation''.<ref>Internal negation is not identical to external negation, an operator between propositions, as considered in propositional logic.</ref> | |||
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A prerequisite for successful executions of predications is obviously that the communication partners involved (a) have the same concepts and (b) use the same association between their concepts and corresponding verbal expressions. | |||
=== | ===Concepts, conceptual arguments, and logical reasoning=== | ||
If concepts are understood in Wittgenstein's sense as common, communicatively negotiated or at least communicatively negotiable habits of distinguishing, then it follows that they must be understood as abstract aspects of certain communicative acts, or more precisely: of all acts explicating this concept.<ref>The alternative view of the consciousness-theoretical philosophy of the 17<sup>th</sup> to 19<sup>th</sup> century, that concepts are mental entities whose existence precedes their communicative-linguistic use as the meaning of predicates, leads to serious aporias, as for instance, Wittgenstein showed in the Tractatus <bib id='Wittgenstein 1922a'>Witt­gen­stein 1922a</bib></ref> Their function is, in particular, to serve as points of reference for (interindividual) verification of the validity of predicative sentences. Thus, anyone who has the concept »X« should not only be able to distinguish instances of X from things (in the broad sense) that are not instances of X; they should also be able to explain what actually constitutes this difference; and they should be able to judge when someone has correctly used a corresponding classificatory expression (cf. <bib id='Ros 1999a'></bib>). | |||
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In order to check whether they mean the same term, two communication partners must therefore turn to their respective conceptual explanations. The conceptual arguments that they use for this purpose are essentially ( i ) based on singular intensional propositions, with which the respective concepts as abstract entities are assigned or denied certain properties or through which several concepts are placed in certain relations with each other, or but ( ii ) on extensional general statements about all objects that fall under the respective concepts and their necessary properties or relations.Both forms are equivalent, although one should realize that the extensional form does not in fact express assertions about the objects, but suggestions for the common practice of talking about this (kind of) object(s). [3] | |||
In order to check whether they mean the same concept, two communication partners must therefore turn to their respective conceptual explanations. The conceptual argumentations they conduct for this purpose are essentially based (''i'') on singular intensional propositions by which the respective concepts as abstract entities are attributed or denied certain properties or by which several concepts are put into certain relations with each other, or else (''ii'') on extensional general statements about all objects that fall under the respective concepts and their necessary properties or relations. Both forms are equivalent, though it should be realized that the extensional form actually expresses not assertions about the objects, but propositions for the common practice of talking about these (kinds of) objects.<ref>Otherwise, the object and observer levels would be confused. Cf. also [[Exkurs:Beispiele begrifflicher Aussagen|Excursus: Examples of Conceptual Statements]].</ref> | |||
===Predication and descriptive noun phrases=== | |||
Predications are obviously accomplished with expressions that can be used to communicate distinctions. Conversely, however, distinguishing expressions are not only used for predications. In particular, with descriptive noun phrases, there is a kind of [[Nomination|nomination]] for which distinguishing expressions play a central role outside of predicative use. In fact, this shows the close entanglement between nomination – as the anchoring in what is already mutually known – and predication – as the aspect of the new, not yet jointly known – that is characteristic of propositions: Descriptive noun phrases take up, for the identification of objects, the distinctions that have been jointly established sometime before by a corresponding predication.<ref>Or: might have been established. – This applies, for instance, to directly perceived distinctions for the identification of objects.</ref> This interplay of predication and descriptive nomination, which spans several propositions, is an essential condition for the possibility of interweaving statements into coherent texts. | |||
==Bilder als Prädi­kation?== | ==Bilder als Prädi­kation?== | ||
Version vom 16. August 2023, 11:26 Uhr
Unterpunkt zu: Sign theories: Overview
Original: Prädikation
Predication as an unsaturated partial action of propositionsAlong with nomination, predication forms the second central partial sign act of the propositional angle of statements. Predication is the partial action of communicating or suggesting that a common habit of distinguishing is now relevant and applicable to the objects that are picked out by the nominations of the propositions from the discourse universe common to the communication partners involved. Reference is thus made to a kind of abstract standard for the dimension of distinction under consideration, traditionally called ‘a concept’. This is – contrasting to nominations – also meant to communicate something that was not yet known to the interlocutor (cf. [Kamlah & Lorenzen 1973a]Kamlah, Wilhelm & Lorenzen, Paul (1973): Logische Propädeutik. Vorschule des vernünftigen Redens. BI Wissenschaftsverlag, München. Since the nominatoric use of images remains very problematic, while at the same time, an equation with propositions is considered unconvincing due to the lack of functional internal division, many image scientists assume that picture usages are to be interpreted fundamentally as predications (cf. [Goodman 1968a]Goodman, Nelson (1968): Languages of Art. Hackett, Indianapolis.
Types and requirements of predicationPredications can bring into play simple habitual distinctions, ie only one term at a time, or complex habitual distinctions made up of several terms: ‹... is red› vs. ‹... is red and green striped with yellow dots framed in violet ›. In addition, the single-place predictive predictions present in these examples are distinguished from the multi-place relational ones Predications, such as: ‹... negotiates with... about...›. Since two cases are differentiated with a practice of differentiation, predictions always occur in pairs: for example ‹... is red› and ‹... is not red› (or ‹... is not red›).The relationship between the two aspects of the distinction under consideration is called internal negation.[1] Predications can bring into play simple distinctive habits, i.e., only a single concept at a time, or complex distinctive habits composed of multiple concepts: ‹... is red› vs. ‹... is red and green striped with yellow dots framed in purple›. Moreover, the single-argument predicative predications present in these examples are distinguished from multi-argument 'relational predications, such as '‹... negotiates with ... about ...›. Since two cases are differentiated with a distinctive practice, predications always occur in pairs: for example, ‹... is red› and ‹... is not red› (or ‹... is unred›). The relation between the two aspects of the distinction under consideration is called internal negation.[1] A prerequisite for successful executions of predications is obviously that the communication partners involved (a) have the same concepts and (b) use the same association between their concepts and corresponding verbal expressions. Concepts, conceptual arguments, and logical reasoningIf concepts are understood in Wittgenstein's sense as common, communicatively negotiated or at least communicatively negotiable habits of distinguishing, then it follows that they must be understood as abstract aspects of certain communicative acts, or more precisely: of all acts explicating this concept.[2] Their function is, in particular, to serve as points of reference for (interindividual) verification of the validity of predicative sentences. Thus, anyone who has the concept »X« should not only be able to distinguish instances of X from things (in the broad sense) that are not instances of X; they should also be able to explain what actually constitutes this difference; and they should be able to judge when someone has correctly used a corresponding classificatory expression (cf. [Ros 1999a]Ros, Arno (1999): Was ist Philosophie?. In: Raatzsch, R. (Hg.), Philosophieren über Philosophie. Leipziger Universitätsverlag, Leipzig. In order to check whether they mean the same term, two communication partners must therefore turn to their respective conceptual explanations. The conceptual arguments that they use for this purpose are essentially ( i ) based on singular intensional propositions, with which the respective concepts as abstract entities are assigned or denied certain properties or through which several concepts are placed in certain relations with each other, or but ( ii ) on extensional general statements about all objects that fall under the respective concepts and their necessary properties or relations.Both forms are equivalent, although one should realize that the extensional form does not in fact express assertions about the objects, but suggestions for the common practice of talking about this (kind of) object(s). [3] In order to check whether they mean the same concept, two communication partners must therefore turn to their respective conceptual explanations. The conceptual argumentations they conduct for this purpose are essentially based (i) on singular intensional propositions by which the respective concepts as abstract entities are attributed or denied certain properties or by which several concepts are put into certain relations with each other, or else (ii) on extensional general statements about all objects that fall under the respective concepts and their necessary properties or relations. Both forms are equivalent, though it should be realized that the extensional form actually expresses not assertions about the objects, but propositions for the common practice of talking about these (kinds of) objects.[3] Predication and descriptive noun phrasesPredications are obviously accomplished with expressions that can be used to communicate distinctions. Conversely, however, distinguishing expressions are not only used for predications. In particular, with descriptive noun phrases, there is a kind of nomination for which distinguishing expressions play a central role outside of predicative use. In fact, this shows the close entanglement between nomination – as the anchoring in what is already mutually known – and predication – as the aspect of the new, not yet jointly known – that is characteristic of propositions: Descriptive noun phrases take up, for the identification of objects, the distinctions that have been jointly established sometime before by a corresponding predication.[4] This interplay of predication and descriptive nomination, which spans several propositions, is an essential condition for the possibility of interweaving statements into coherent texts.
Bilder als Prädikation?Mit dem Begriff des Exemplifizierens hat Nelson Goodman die Grundlage der meisten Prädikationstheorien des Bildes gelegt. Bei einer Exemplifikation funktioniert ein Zeichen als ein Muster, mit dem eine Unterscheidungsgewohnheit – genauer: ein Begriff – durch eine Instanz, die unter diese Unterscheidung fällt, ins kommunikative Feld geführt wird. Das passiert bei Bildern insbesondere hinsichtlich Farbunterscheidungen, Formbegriffen und Begriffen für relative räumliche Anordnungen. Eine Bildpräsentation kann daher als eine entsprechende Prädikation verstanden werden. Offensichtlich muss es sich in der Regel um ziemlich komplexe Prädikationen handeln, denn monochrome Bilder, Bilder mit zwei oder drei Farbflächen, die in einem einfachen Anordnungsverhältnis stehen oder Bilder mit einem einzigen einfachen geometrischen Gegenstand machen nur einen sehr geringen und eher untergeordneten Teil aller möglichen Bilder aus. Die Mehrzahl insbesondere der darstellenden Bilder, deren Inhalt im Wesentlichen aus räumlichen Anordnungen (mehr oder weniger) materieller Körper besteht, bringen die recht komplexe Prädikation, mit der diese spezielle Art der räumlichen Anordnung genau dieser Art von materiellen Gegenständen von anderen Anordnungen der gleichen oder anderer Arten von Gegenständen unterscheidet, ins Spiel. Die prädikative Theorie der Bildverwendung in der von [Sachs-Hombach 2003a]Sachs-Hombach, Klaus (2003): Das Bild als kommunikatives Medium. Elemente einer allgemeinen Bildwissenschaft. Halem, Köln. Die Standardfunktion der Präsentation eines Photos, wie des gezeigten Beispielbildes (Abb. 1), müsste dann prädikatorisch folgendermaßen verstanden werden: „... sieht so (!) aus“, wobei mit dem Photo eine sehr komplizierte visuelle Unterscheidungsgewohnheit angesprochen wird, die verbal durch die deiktische Partikel ‘so’ als (Teil der) Prädikation eingebunden ist (das ‘!’ markiere die Zeigegeste). Diese tatsächlich aus vielen Begriffen zusammengesetzte Unterscheidungsgewohnheit mag in einem zweiten Schritt auf einzelne Komponenten eingeschränkt werden, durch die momentane visuelle Erscheinungsweisen räumlich-materieller Gegenstände voneinander unterschieden werden. In einem dritten Schritt kann dann das Teil für das Ganze genommen werden: Das Beispielbild vermittelt dann etwa die Prädikation ‹... ist eine Hängebrücke›. Piktoriale Nominationen als abgeleitete VerwendungsweiseAbgeleitet von der grundlegend prädikatorischen Verwendungsweise kann, nach Sachs-Hombach, ferner der Begriff selbst als Thema eingeführt und somit eine Verständigung über das Muster als solches angeregt werden (analog einer möglichen Verwendung eines generellen Terminus in nominativem Gebrauch: ‘das Rote an sich’): ‘das so (!) Aussehen an sich’ bzw. ‘der Begriff des so (!) Aussehens’ oder auch ‘der Begriff der Hängebrücke’. Andererseits könne die Aufmerksamkeit auch auf eine bestimmte Instanz des Begriffs (analog einer deiktischen Kennzeichnung ‘diese rote Hängebrücke’’) gerichtet werden, über die (mit einer anderen, etwa sprachlichen Prädikation) etwas Weiteres mitgeteilt werde (‘... wurde 1937 eingeweiht.’). In beiden Fällen ist das exemplarische Einführen einer bestimmten komplexen visuellen Unterscheidungsfähigkeit Voraussetzung, ohne die die nominatorischen Verwendungsweisen nicht möglich wären. Probleme der Prädikationstheorie des BildesDer prädikativen Bildtheorie zufolge sind Bilder in kommunikativer Hinsicht prinzipiell „ungesättigt“. Sie liefern Prädikate, die ergänzt werden müssen und dann auf komplexerer Ebene eine prädikative oder nominatorische Funktion übernehmen können. Dass uns die kommunikative Unvollständigkeit der Verwendung von Bildern in der Regel nicht auffällt sei darin begründet, dass wir zahlreiche Konventionen herausgebildet haben, die in verschiedenen Zusammenhängen eine entsprechende Ergänzung nahe legen und auf diese Weise mehr oder weniger automatisch ergänzt würden. Problematisch erscheint an der prädikativen Bildtheorie vor allem, dass in der Bildverwendung Begriffe exemplarisch, also über eine entsprechende unter den jeweiligen Begriff fallende Instanz mitgeteilt werden sollen. Das gilt insbesondere für die als zentral geltenden Darstellungen raumzeitlicher materieller Gegenstände mit ihren charakteristischen Individuationskriterien. Um den Begriff zu erhalten, der der entsprechenden Prädikation zugrunde liegt, muss demnach ein zugehöriges unter den Begriff fallendes Individuum zunächst vorhanden sein, um dann damit auf den Begriff aufmerksam zu machen. Diese Funktion, Gegenstände zumindest in gewisser Weise zur Verfügung zu stellen – die Kontextbildung – wäre demnach vorrangig vor der Funktion der Prädikation, die durch sie erst ermöglicht wird (vgl. [Schirra 2006a]Schirra, Jörg R.J. (2006): Begriffsgenetische Betrachtungen in der Bildwissenschaft: Fünf Thesen. In: Sachs-Hombach, K. (Hg.), Bild und Medium. Kunstgeschichtliche und philosophische Grundlagen der interdisziplinären Bildwissenschaft. Halem, Köln.
Prädikation, Prädikator, Prädikat und genereller TerminusDie sprachlichen Ausdrücke, mit deren Hilfe eine Prädikation vollzogen wird, werden ‘Prädikatoren’ genannt.[5] Als Pendant zur Bezeichnung ‘singuläre Termini’ für Nominatoren werden Prädikatoren einer älteren Tradition folgend auch als ‘generelle Termini’ bezeichnet. Linguistisch sind die Prädikatoren im allgemeinen durch die Verben (in einem weiten Sinn) zusammen mit den indefiniten Nominalphrasen der betrachteten Sätze und den damit gebildeten Präpositionalphrasen (sofern jene nicht als Satzadverbien wirken) gegeben. Der Ausdruck ‘Prädikat’ wird manchmal synonym mit ‘Prädikator’ oder ‘Prädikation’ verwendet, was aber seiner diversen weiteren Bedeutungen wegen nicht sehr glücklich ist. Oft bezeichnet ‘Prädikat’ auch, als grammatischer Begriff, die unterscheidenden Ausdrücke, unabhängig davon, ob sie prädikatorisch genutzt werden oder als Teil einer Nomination in einer Kennzeichnung auftreten. |
Notes
Literature
[Carnap 1947a]Carnap, Rudolf (1947): Meaning and Necessity: A Study in Semantics and Modal Logic. Univ. Press, Chicago, IL.[Gerhardus et al. 1975a]Gerhardus, Dietfried; Kledzik, Silke M. & Reitzig, Gerd H. (1975): Schlüssiges Argumentieren – Logisch-propädeutisches Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen.[Goodman 1968a]Goodman, Nelson (1968): Languages of Art. Hackett, Indianapolis.[Kamlah & Lorenzen 1973a]Kamlah, Wilhelm & Lorenzen, Paul (1973): Logische Propädeutik. Vorschule des vernünftigen Redens. BI Wissenschaftsverlag, München.[Ros 1999a]Ros, Arno (1999): Was ist Philosophie?. In: Raatzsch, R. (Hg.), Philosophieren über Philosophie. Leipziger Universitätsverlag, Leipzig.[Sachs-Hombach 2003a]Sachs-Hombach, Klaus (2003): Das Bild als kommunikatives Medium. Elemente einer allgemeinen Bildwissenschaft. Halem, Köln.[Schirra 2006a]Schirra, Jörg R.J. (2006): Begriffsgenetische Betrachtungen in der Bildwissenschaft: Fünf Thesen. In: Sachs-Hombach, K. (Hg.), Bild und Medium. Kunstgeschichtliche und philosophische Grundlagen der interdisziplinären Bildwissenschaft. Halem, Köln.[Wittgenstein 1922a]Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1922): Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Kegan Paul, London. Version 1: 2013 Responsible: Editing: Contributions by: Joerg R.J. Schirra und Marcel Lemmes — (Note) Quote as: [Schirra 2013g-v]Schirra, Jörg R.J. (2013). Prädikation. (Ausg. 1). In: Schirra, J.R.J.; Halawa, M. & Liebsch, D. (Hg.), Glossar der Bildphilosophie. (2012-2026). [bildglossar.org/index.php?title=Prädikation]. |
